Court considerations of tortious distributive justice - Free Essay Example

à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"It is inappropriate for courts to seek to take account of considerations of distributive justice in their decisions in tort such factors are ones for the legislature alone.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Critically evaluate this statement. In order to evaluate whether or not it is appropriate for the courts to take account of considerations of distributive justice in tort, the meaning of distributive justice in this context must be considered. According to Aristotleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s classic definition, distributive justice is a mechanism by which benefits and burdens among the members of a relevant group in proportion to some criterion are distributed.[1] By way of example, a criterion for distribution which is commonly considered is equality; which involves an attempt to decrease the gaps between the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"havesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and the disadvantaged. Often when the term distributive justice is brought up, issues concerning tort lawà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s impact on the distribution of resources across the wider population spring to mind. This reflects the distributive justice theory propounded by Perry[2] in which he states the point of distributive justice is understood to be the just distribution of material resources throughout society as a whole. Perryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s theory of distributive justice consists of a pattern of entitlements to material resources existing independently of tort law, and of tort law as a set of obligations not to disturb that pattern. Cane[3] draws an important distinction between distributive justice all things considered, otherwise known as global distributive justice, and the distributive justice that is confined to tort law. Because of its corrective-justice structure, tort law may be considered distributively unfair in the global sense even if the way it distributes rights and obligations is considered fair as between doers and sufferers of harm. As a matter of fact, one of the most common criticisms of tort law is precisely that it distributes justice unfairly because it oper ates pair-wise or under a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"correlativity,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ it often doesnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t take into account wider distributive context of society. [4] Under Caneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s approach, tort law itself consists of rules and principles of personal responsibility for harm that establish a pattern of distribution of risks of harm and obligations of repair within society. The subject matter of the relevant principles of distribution under the approach are risks of harm and obligations of reparation and correlative entitlements, not à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"material resourcesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢.[5] It is widely held that any sound explanation of tort law must, whatever other considerations it may invoke, invoke considerations of corrective justice.[6] Corrective justice is the idea that liability rectifies the injustice inflicted by one person on another. It focuses on a quantity that represents what rightfully belongs to one party but is now wrongly possessed by anothe r party and therefore must be returned to its rightful owner. In distributive justice, by contrast, the parties interact not directly but through the medium of a distributive scheme. Instead of linking solely the specific tortfeasor to the victim, distributive justice links all possible tortfeasors or victims in the same group to the benefit or the burden that they jointly share.[7] By way of example, the legal regime of personal injuries can be organized either correctively or distributively. Correctively a tort is committed by one party against another and the subsequent payment of damages from the first party to the second will restore the equality disturbed by the initial wrong. Distributively, the same incident activates a compensation scheme that shifts resources among members of a pool of contributors and recipients in accordance with a distributive criterion. The difference between corrective and distributive justice lies not in the different subject matters to which they apply, but in the way that they each operate differently on a subject matter to both. One argument against courts taking into consideration distributive justice in their decisions is the view that distributive and corrective justice considerations are incompatible and that when a corrective justification is mixed with a distributive one, each unavoidably undermines the justificatory force of the other. This is a view advocated by Weinrib[8] who argues that corrective and distributive justice are categorically different. He argues that if the law is to be coherent, any given relationship cannot rest on a combination of both corrective and distributive justifications. He claims that corrective justice is the backbone of the private law relationship and there can be no combining of distributive and corrective considerations. He rejects distributive considerations as being à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"alienà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ to tort law interpreted as a coherent normative practice.[9] Many sch olars however dispute Weinribà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s claim that distributive and corrective justice considerations are categorically different. Gardner[10] for example contends the opposed view that certain questions of distributive justice are central to the law of torts and must be faced by those who administer and develop it, namely the judiciary, precisely because the law of torts is a site of corrective justice. His view is that corrective justice specifies the structure of tort law as a system of correlative rights and obligations of recompensation between doers and sufferers of harm and that principles of distributive justice operate within this structure by specifying what these rights and obligations are. This theory results in a sense in which distributive justice is parasitic on corrective justice. A thesis which is supported by Cane[11], who states that corrective justice provides the structure of tort law within which distributive justice operates. The fact that many schola rs believe that corrective and distributive justice can work together coherently, disproves the argument put forth by Weinrib that distributive justice should not be considered in the courts, as it undermines essential corrective justice considerations. Moreover, it has been shown that distributive justice can be used as a constraint on corrective justice. In White[12], Lord Hoffman said that it would offend the ordinary persons notion of distributive justice if police officers who suffered psychiatric harm as a result of witnessing the events at the stadium were allowed to recover when many relatives had been sent away empty-handed. He contrasted the perspective of distributive justice with that of principle. From the perspective of principle (or corrective justice), the question of whether the officers should recover would have been answered by considering solely the relationship between them and the defendants, ignoring their position in relation to other groups of victims. In Lord Hoffmans view, if the court was to take into account only corrective justice considerations the result would have been that the officers would be allowed to recover. The reason he rejected this result was that the relatives had not been allowed to recover in Alcock[13]. To allow the police officers to recover when the relatives had been sent away empty-handed would have generated an unacceptable distribution of the risks and costs of negligence as between different classes of victims and injurers. So he used distributive justice consideration as a constraint on corrective justice to prevent this unfavourable outcome. The introduction of loss-spreading into tort law also demonstrates a blurring of the lines between corrective and distributive justice. The principle that accident losses should be distributed so as to minimize their felt impact has the proportional structure of distributive justice as it mandates the sharing of burdens in accordance with a criterion. Although it can and is argued by Weinrib that its use in tort law, fails to achieve distributive justice, because continuing the proportion by applying the principle to everyone within its reach is inconsistent with its being channelled through the doer and sufferer of a single harm. Conversely, since the issue of how the loss is ultimately spread is not relevant to the relationship of doing and suffering as such, in fact the best medium for loss-spreading might be some third party, the orienting of tort law toward loss-spreading cannot be portrayed as purely corrective justice consideration either. The combination of elements from both forms of justice ensures that neither form is achieved. Another somewhat more substantial argument against courts seeking to take account of considerations of distributive justice in tort, is that distributive decisions are often considered political by nature and therefore as a matter of course should not be undertaken by the judiciary. Weinrib argues that favouring a certain distributive consideration amongst several alternatives, requires the consideration of a collective goal which is external to the structure of corrective justice, and as such is political and thus falls outside the judicial scope.[14] Thus making distributive issues à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"illegitimateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ for consideration by the judiciary under the law of torts. A view which is supported by Schwartz. [15] The illegitimacy charge is based on an assumption that from a procedural justice perspective the idea that judges determining issues of resource distribution is problematic, since judges are not elected and their decisions do not necessarily reflect the preference of the voting public. He points to two features of the judicial process that make it unsuitable for resolving political issues of distribution. First, courts do not have the capacity to consider the full range of possible distributions, partly because their consideration of distributi ve issues is inevitably related to the resolution of disputes between two parties; judges therefore cannot make distributive decisions which affect whole categories of potential doers and suffers of harm. He argues that because the rules and principles of tort law organise the world in terms of bilateral relationships between pairs of tortfeasors and victims, it is implausible to explain it as a distributive mechanism. It might be thought from this, that distributive queries can only properly be considered by legislators and not judges and that judges in tort cases should only do justice between the parties. But where the rule of law prevails, doing justice between the parties must necessitate consideration of whether the plaintiff belongs to a class of people who should enjoy a right to proceed in tort against the defendant. Under the rule of law judges must not separate the rule from the ruling, either by declaring what the rule is or will henceforth be while declining to apply it to the case in hand, or by denying that there is a rule. Therefore it follows that no judge may rule in favour of any plaintiff except by placing the plaintiff within a class of imaginable plaintiffs who would, according to the judge, be entitled to the same ruling. So when courts recognize new causes of action in tort, or extend existing causes of action, they are distributing legal rights and duties to new classes of potential plaintiffs and potential defendants whether intentionally or not. Secondly, he submits that because distributive justice decisions can have far reaching implications affecting the interest of all members of the community, these sort of decisions should be made by the legislature who, unlike judges, are accountable to the community.[16] In other words, any specific distributive decisions should be made solely by elected institutions since it affects the interests of many individuals. It is his view that judges, who are not elected and who are instituti onally constrained by the limitations of the judicial process, do not have the authority to select a certain distribution among possible distributions. These arguments are not without merit. Courts themselves recognise their limitations in considering issues of social policy, and sometimes use this as a justification for refusing to make a particular distributive choice in a particular way.[17] However, as Keren-Paz[18] points out, a decision not to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"interveneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ can have equally politically value-laden implications. Typically the refusal to make a distributive choice is in itself a distributive choice, which takes sides in the struggle between different groups in society and is heavily biased in favour of status quo and the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"havesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ against the disadvantaged. He asserts that a decision to perpetuate the status quo is as political in nature as to a decision to deviate from it.[19] Keren-Paz submits that the only justif ication for judicial deference from distributive decisions is reliant upon the implausible conclusion that the status quo reflects a conscious, informed and legitimate decision by the legislature countering the decision that the court is asked to make, by a litigant striving to achieve social change.[20] This cannot be the case since, as a matter of constitutional law there is no legislation by omission. Also if it were the case then, given the inevitability of some form of distribution resulting from court-made rules, it might be taken that courts be prevented from developing new tort rules at all as there is an inevitability of some distributive results of tort law and that the political nature of judicial rule making is inevitable. An example of how in the process of attempting corrective justice between the parties in a tort case, judges may also be attempting distributive justice between classes of parties, is illustrated by the case of Donoghue and Stevenson[21]. The case w hereby the modern concept of negligence was created by setting out general principles whereby one person would owe a duty of care to another person. The decision in this case improved the position of a category of potential victims at the expense of a category of potential tortfeasors, thus clearly having distributive effect. This shows that whenever there is a question before the court of which acts ought to be classed as torts, judges cannot avoid attempting distributive justice. Every decision of the court has clear distributive repercussions yet no one seriously disputes the legitimacy of the courts in dealing with these issues. It is true that judges are not held accountable in the same way that politicians are, although it is not true that judges are unaccountable. For instance, the judicial obligation to give reasons for judgment that can withstand critical scrutiny is an important form of accountability. A clear of advantage of the courts taking into account consideration s of distributive justice whilst crafting tort rules is that it requires an open discussion by judges of the distributive effects of their decisions. Although it is suggested by Mandel[22] that courts are more likely to be conservative and that they tend to impede rather than further an egalitarian agenda, it is countered by Keren-Paz[23] that no matter what the judgesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ real inclinations are, conservative or not, if the consideration of distributive goals is required then judges are more likely to produce progressive results than regressive ones given the costs of being seen to endorse explicit inegalitarian views. It is my opinion that, requiring judges to take account of distributive justice considerations would improve transparency, as judges would be required to reveal the values that lie behind their decisions and not hide behind the argument that such decisions are outside their purview. However troubling the lack of accountability of the courts may be, it can provide no support for an argument against involvement in redistribution, since preserving the status quo is as political as engaging in progressive redistribution. Although I firmly believe otherwise, even if it were true that the lack of accountability of the courts presents a real challenge to their legitimacy in pursing distributive goals, the ability of the legislature to react to courtsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ rulings by amending or complementing them should provide an adequate response to this concern. In conclusion I do not believe it inappropriate for courts to seek to take account of considerations of distributive justice in their decisions in tort. I believe that taking into consideration the distributive justice effects of court rulings would in fact have positive effects as it would encourage judges to consider the distributive implications that will be inevitably caused by any formation of new tort rules. Also as demonstrated in White distributive justice consideratio ns can be used as checks on decisions that if considered under a purely corrective justice approach may have negative effects for substantive justice. Although the judiciary are not held to the same standards of accountability of the legislature, there are still sufficient restrictions in place to hold the judiciary accountable for decisions made with distributive considerations in mind with the security that the legislature can always overrule court rulings if deemed necessary. Bibliography A Schwartz (cited T Keren-Paz, Torts, Egalitarianism and Distributive Justice (2007)) Alcock v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire Police [1992] 1 AC 310 Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (2000) (Ethics) Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562 E Weinrib, The Idea of Private Law (2013) J Gardner, What is Tort Law for? Part 1: The Place of Corrective Justice (2010) J Gardner, What is Tort Law For? Part 2. The Place of Distributive Justice (2013) M Mandel (cited T Keren-Paz, Torts, Egalitarianism and Distributive Justice (2007)) P Cane, Distributive Justice and Tort Law (2001) S Perry, Tort Law in Patterson (ed) A Companion to Philosophy of Law and Legal Theory (1996) T Keren-Paz, Torts, Egalitarianism and Distributive Justice (2007) White v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire [1998] 3 WLR 1509 [1] Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (2000) (Ethics) 85. [2] S Perry, Tort Law in Patterson (ed) A Companion to Philosophy of Law and Legal Theory (1996) 333, 71-72. [3] P Cane, Distributive Justice and Tort Law, [4] J Gardner, What is Tort Law For? Part 2. The Place of Distributive Justice (2013) [5] P Cane supra note 3 [6] J Gardner, What is Tort Law for? Part 1: The Place of Corrective Justice (2010) [7] T Keren-Paz, Torts, Egalitarianism and Distributive Justice (2007) [8] E Weinrib, The Idea of Private Law (2013) [9] ibid [10] J Gardner, supra note 4 [11] P Cane supra note 3 [12] White v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire [1998] 3 WLR 1509 [13] Alcock v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire Police [1992] 1 AC 310 [14] E Weinrib, The Idea of Private Law (2013) [15] A Schwartz (cited T Keren-Paz, Torts, Egalitarianism and Distributive Justice (2007)) [16] E Weinrib, The Idea of Private Law (2013) [17] T Keren-Paz, Torts, Egalitarianism and Distributive Justice (2007) [18] ibid [19] ibid [20] ibid [21] Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562 [22] M Mandel (cited T Keren-Paz, Torts, Egalitarianism and Distributive Justice (2007)) [23] T Keren-Paz, supra note 8

Audio Assets Definition - 1490 Words

What are Assets? â€Å"Assets are sometimes defined as resources or things of value that are owned by a company.† †¢ (1) Audio Audio is sound that is within the acoustic range which is available to humans. An Audio Frequency (AF) is an electrical alternating current within the 20 to 20,000 hertz (cycles per second) range which can be used to produce acoustic sound. In computers, audio is the sound system that comes with or can be added to a computer. An audio card contains a special built-in processor and memory for processing audio files and sending them to speakers in the computer. Audio files are records of sound that has been captured and can be played back. Sound is a succession of naturally analog signals which are converted to digital†¦show more content†¦There is also no compression involved. The digital recording is a close-to-exact representation of the analog sound. PCM is most commonly used in CD’s and DVD’s. It has a subtype called Linear Pulse-Code Modulation, where samples are taken at linear intervals. LCPM is the most common form of PCM, which is why the two terms are almost interchangeable. †¢ WAV WAV is also known as Waveform Audio File Format. It was developed by Microsoft and IBM back in 1991. Lots of people seem to assume that WAV files are uncompressed audio files, but that’s not always true. WAV is actually just a Windows container for audio formats. This means that a WAV file can contain compressed audio, but it’s not usually used for that. A lot of WAV files contain uncompressed audio in PCM format. The WAV file is just a â€Å"wrapper† for the PCM encoding, which therefore makes it a lot more suitable for use on Windows systems. However, Mac systems can usually open WAV files without any issues. †¢ AIFF AIFF stands for Audio Interchange File Format. 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Hemolysis Lab free essay sample

Organisms also have white blood cells, also referred to as leukocytes, which combat foreign antibodies in the immune system. White blood cells are complex in structure, and in contrast to red blood cells, have a nucleus. They include such cells as lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, neutrophils and basophils. While some cells such as lymphocytes make antibodies, others attack foreign objects, such as leukocytes, and others have several support jobs that help the immune system perform more efficiently. The immune system also consists of platelets. They are produced in the bone marrow of animals by megakaryocytes (bone marrow cells) which continuously go into the blood system and help clot blood (Barrilleaux 2012). Cell membranes are composed of a phospholipid bilayer, making them hydrophobic. Membranes have many functions, most importantly holding the cytoplasm and organelles. Cell membranes often contain protein channels that allow substances to enter the cell (Bowe et al. , 1997). Cell membranes are selectively permeable, meaning that some substances and chemicals can enter the cell, but not others. Most often, hydrophobicity and size determines permeability rates (Barrilleaux 2012). If too much of a substance rushes into the cell, then they create an osmotic imbalance, meaning that the pressure inside the cell compared to outside the cell differs so much that the cell membrane bursts. This process is called hemolysis (Ivanov 1999). Hemolysis is the process in which red blood cells are disrupted. The cells then release their cytoplasm and organelles. Since the cells are microscopic, we cannot view one cell undergoing hemolysis by the naked eye, however we can view a solution of them undergoing hemolysis without any specific equipment. However you can also view a specific number of cells using a phase contrast microscope, which will not only magnify the cells, but also shows depth and contrast (Barrilleaux 2012). We can also measure hemolysis by a spectrophotometer. A spectrophotometer measures how much light is absorbed by the solution. If a solution is more turbid (cloudy) then it will have a higher absorbance. Throughout this experiment, we wanted to test the membrane permeability of mammalian red blood cells by using hemolysis. We would view it under phase contrast microscopes, spectrophotometers and our eyes. We don’t know what the exact partition coefficients are yet of all the chemicals we will be testing. We will test the membrane permeability of 12 different chemicals, and our hypothesis is that they will differ by their molecular composition, structure, size and whether or not they are ionic. Barrilleaux, A. (2012). Cells and Heredity Laboratory Manual. (pp. 90). New Orleans, LA: Loyola University. Bowe, C. L. , Mokhtarzadeh, L. , Venkatesan, P. , Babu, S. , Axelrod, H. R. , Sofia, M. J. , Karkarla, R. , Chan T. Y. , Kim, J. W. , Lee, H. J. Amidon, G. L. Choe, S. Y. , Walker, S. , Kahne, D. (1997). Design of Compounds that Increase the Absorption of Polar Molecules. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 94, 2218-12223. Ivanov, I. T. (1999). Low pH-Induced hemolysis of erythrocytes is related to the entry of the acid into cytosole and oxidative stress on cellular membranes. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta-Biomembranes, 1415, 349-360. Ree ce, J. B. , Urry, L. A, Cain, M. L. , Wasserman, S. A. , Minorsky, P. V. , Jackson, R. B. (2011). Membrane Structure and Function. Wilbur, B, (9th ed. ) Campbell Biology (pp. 125-142). San Francisco, CA: Pearson Education. Materials and Methods: Spectrophotometry: After setting the Genosys spectrophotometer to measure the absorbance of light, we set the wave length to 540 nanometers. We pipetted 1. 2 mL of . 3M glycerol into a cuvette and blanked the machine. We then mixed 3 ml of . 3M glycerol and 10 ul of whole blood [1] in a test tube, covered it with parafilm and then inverted the tube to mix the solution adequately. We then pipetted 1. mL of the blood/glycerol solution into a new cuvette, put it in the spectrophotometer and recorded the absorbance for a time of ‘zero’. We then repeated these steps with . 15M NaCl. We blanked 1. 2 mL of a . 15M solution, and then mixed 3mL of the . 15M solution and 10 ul of horse blood in a test tube. We covered the test tube with parafilm and inverted the mixture, we then pipetted 1. 2 mL of the mixture out and into a new cuvett e. We measured the absorbance for a time of ‘zero’. We then simultaneously measured the absorbance of the glycerol/blood mixture and the NaCl/blood mixture every minute for 30 minutes. Basic Contrast Microscopy: We cleaned two glass slides with alcohol and put them aside. We then combined 1 mL of . 15M NaCl and 10ul of whole horse blood in a microcentrifuge and immediately transferred 10 mL of the mixture to the clean glass slide, added a cover slip, recorded the start time and watched the cells under 400x bright 4field microscopy and recorded what we observed. We then switched to 400x phase contrast microscopy and also recorded what we saw periodically and noted any change. We then repeated the same procedure for . 3M glycerol. We added 1 mL of a . M glycerol solution and 10ul of horse blood into a separate microcentrifuge and instantly pipetted 10 ul of the mixture onto another clean glass slide, covered with a coverslip, recorded the start time and viewed under 400X phase contrast microscopy. We watched the slide for 14 minutes and recorded and drew how many cells were in our viewing area. We stopped recording what we saw when cells were no longer visible. Turbi dty: We predicted which chemicals would take a long time (longer than an hour) to turn clear, so we tested those chemicals first. We put 3mL of each chemical in a separate test tube, mixed it with 10 ul of whole horse blood, and documented how much time passed until the mixture turned clear. We then rated it on our own scale of one through five of how turbid it was at time zero. We started with putting NaCl in a test tube and then KCl in another test tube, and then so on ammonium chloride, ammonium acetate, sodium acetate, glucose, sucrose, ethylene glycol, ethanol, glycerol, glycine, and then methanol. After each test tube was labeled with which chemical was inside, we added the horse blood and recorded how long it took the mixture to turn clear. We repeated some of the mixtures, such as ammonium acetate and ammonium chloride because we documented the time incorrectly. We then put the chemicals on a chart in order of how long it took (in minutes) for the turbid mixtures to clear up. Results: Hemolysis: Spectrophotometry: In our results of our spectrophotometry, we recorded the absorbance of each mixture and discovered that our . 3M Glycerol and blood mixture level of absorption initially increased insignificantly and then flattened out for the duration of the experiment at . 355 nanometers. Simultaneously, we recorded the NaCl/blood mixture and it decreased extremely gradually, with the exception of one discrepancy in the middle of the experiment (Figure 1). Phase Contrast: We observed roughly 100 red blood cells using 400X bright field microscopy at the commencement of our experiment for . 15M NaCl/whole blood (Figure 2). We then viewed the red blood cell/NaCl mixture using 400X phase contrast and viewed the same amount of cells, except this time they were mainly small black dots clustered around each other (Figure 3). We witched from using the bright field microscopy to phase contrast microscopy because phase contrast shows depth and has a clearer picture. We then did the same procedure with a . 3M glycerol/blood solution. The start time was 4:45. We observed the first slide using 400X phase contrast microscopy. The start image and it indicates that there were roughly 100 cells (Figure 4). Figure 5 shows what was happening at 4:50; there were roughly 50 cells left and the ghosts of the cells were clearly visible. Figure 6 shows at 4:51 that approximately 30 cells were left, and they were disappearing at an extremely quickly. Figure 7 shows that at 4:55 10 cells were left. Almost all the cells were gone. Figure 8 shows that all the cells have disappeared and only ghosts were left at 4:59 P. M. After the experiment was concluded, figure 9 compared the number of red blood cell mixtures over time. Also, if this experiment was done again, and water was substituted for . 15M NaCl, then the red blood cell would swell and burst because the water is a hypotonic solution compared to the red blood cell. Membrane Permeability: Turbidity: Some chemicals, such as ethylene glycol, glycerol and methanol changed instantaneously from turbid to clear. Others such as NaCl, KCl, sodium acetate, glucose, sucrose and glycine did not change from turbid. Table 10 shows that chemicals reacted differently with the 10 ul horse blood in both how turbid it was at the start of the experiment, and how long it took each chemical to turn completely clear. Figure 11 demonstrates the relationship of time-to-turbidity loss (based on our relative scale of 1-4 we determined at the beginning of each chemical experiment) to each chemical that did change turbidity. Discussion: During this experiment, we fulfilled the objectives in which we wanted to test membrane permeability and test chemicals and whether or not they cause hemolysis. We discovered that NaCl, KCl, sodium acetate, glucose, sucrose and glycine do not cause hemolysis because they are not hypotonic solutions; however, ammonium chloride, ammonium acetate, ethylene glycol, ethanol, glycerol and methanol are hypotonic solutions. In which case the red blood cell has lower pressure than the outside of the red blood cell, so the solution rushes in causes the red blood cell to lose its cytoplasmic inside. Some chemicals and solutions cause hemolysis quicker because they are much smaller in atomic size and mass compared to large molecules that cannot permeate the red blood cell membrane as easily, which slows down hemolysis (Bowe et al. , 1997). Our control (. 15M NaCl) are consistent throughout our experiment. They didn’t cause hemolysis in the spectrophotometer, phase contrast, and with the test tubes. With every one of our other chemicals, we could use NaCl as baseline to refer to, and to see whether or not that chemical was causing hemolysis or if it was an isotonic solution. There were a few issues in the data gathering category; we had to repeat the turbidity test tube experiment for two chemicals because we marked down the wrong start time. We also had trouble viewing . 3M glucose and blood solution under phase contrast, because our microscope was not set up correctly initially, so we had to keep adjusting. We had to gather the data from another group. Every method we used to view hemolysis, whether it be the spectrophotometer, microscope, or our eyes, each had its benefits and downfalls. The spectrophotometer allowed for absorption to be measured better than our eyes and microscope. However, we couldn’t actually see it unless we took the cuvette out of the spectrophotometer. Our eyes were a good way to actually view turbidity without an additional object. It was helpful to actually see the experiment going on in front of you, it allows an additional perspective of envisioning the experiment later on, because it’s easier to actually think about what is happening in the experiment. The microscopes are the best at actually viewing the hemolysis on an extremely small scale. Overall, it was important to view hemolysis with each data collecting instrument, whether it be the spectrophotometer, microscope or eyes. Each had a separate purpose and each came in handy when interpreting the results. It was a great experiment and I thoroughly enjoyed getting â€Å"hands on† training, and also it was vital to view hemolysis and the chemicals that cause hemolysis. Our hypothesis is accepted because the smaller the molecular composition, the quicker the red blood cell membrane was permeated. Also, other scientific articles such as Design Compounds That Increase the Absorption of Polar Molecules and Low pH is Related to the Entry of the Acid Into Cytosole and Oxidative Stress on Cellular Membranes support our hypothesis.

Sustainable and Unsustainable Development Essay Example

Sustainable and Unsustainable Development Paper Sustainable Development Concept Sustainable development is a pattern of social and structured economic transformations (i. e. development) which optimizes the economic and societal benefits available in the present, without jeopardizing the likely potential for similar benefits in the future. A primary goal of sustainable development is to achieve a reasonable and equitably distributed level of economic well-being that can be perpetuated continually for many human generations. Sustainable development implies using renewable natural resources in a manner which does not eliminate or degrade them, or otherwise diminish their usefulness for future generations. It further implies using non-renewable (exhaustible) mineral resources in a manner which does not unnecessarily preclude easy access to them by future generations. Sustainable development also requires depleting non-renewable energy resources at a slow enough rate so as to ensure the high probability of an orderly society transition to renewable energy sources. Sustainable development is a broad concept covering the way in which human activities impact on economic development, the environment and social well-being. It is generally accepted that both governments and industry should promote development that is sustainable in all three dimensions, but practical application of the concept is complex because its objective assessment is elusive. While the concept can be readily and widely accepted in general terms, a consensus viewpoint on the value of individual actions is more difficult to achieve because of the absence of criteria permitting objective assessment of their â€Å"sustainable† qualities. We will write a custom essay sample on Sustainable and Unsustainable Development specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Sustainable and Unsustainable Development specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Sustainable and Unsustainable Development specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Some of the areas that come under the scope of sustainable development are : Agriculture Biotechnology Energy Forests Water etc. Sustainable development is said to set limits on the developing world. While current first world countries polluted significantly during their development, the same countries encourage third world countries to reduce pollution, which sometimes impedes growth. Some consider that the implementation of sustainable development would mean a reversion to pre-modern lifestyles. Sustainability in Construction Industry Sustainable Construction is the application of sustainable development to the construction industry. There is an increasing demand, in both the private and public sectors, to understand sustainable construction practices. This demand is driven by a realisation that sustainable practices make sense to both owners and operators. The practices not only help the environment but can also improve economic profitability and improve relationships with stakeholder groups. The diagram below explains how sustainable development is implemented within the construction industrys private and public sectors. Many construction companies are involved in implementing sustainable development practices and have made sustainability a key part of the design and construction process; many companies in India have successfully constructed â€Å"Green Buildings†. Green buildings are constructions in which resources like energy, water, and materials are used efficiently, through better design, construction, operation, maintenance, and removal of waste, reducing negative impacts on human health and the environment. The reason for going green or adopting sustainable development practices is literally a no brainer, as a green building constructed using sustainable development practices provides many benefits both tangible and intangible, starting from the immediate cost savings in terms of energy and water consumption to a healthy and productive environment for work. Some of the initiatives by construction companies are listed below: ITC Green Centre is the worlds largest green building with space of 170,000 square feet, and also the first non-commercial complex in the country to be awarded the USGBC-LEED platinum rating the highest in the order. In collaboration with Canadian plastics major Nova Chemicals, Reliance Industries will be designing and constructing energy-efficient buildings in India. Indias first internationally certified green building that houses the Confederation of Indian Industry-Sohrabji Godrej Business Centre spread over 16,000 square feet was set up in Hyderabad in 2003. Today, the public and private construction companies in India have applied sustainable development practices prevalent in the industry to construct over 25 million square feet of registered green building expanse, which is all set to touch a 100 million square feet by 2010–12. Unsustainable development in the Energy sector Unsustainability can be defined as a practice or process that cant go on indefinitely because it is destroying the very conditions on which it depends. Agriculture development is at crossroads today. Despite an agricultural revolution in the developing world over the course of a single generation that has produced enormous benefits for farmers, consumers and economies, a number of second generation challenges in agricultural transformation have emerged. Issues such as disparities in agricultural growth, problem of food insecurity and decreasing diversity, plateauing productivity in certain crops, growing ecological imbalance and unsustainable agricultural practices have come to fore. Ironically, a large proportion of the rural community continues to live in regions with poor quality soils and unpredictable rainfall, and remote from agricultural services and markets, deprived of the gains of agricultural revolution. Water harvesting is defined as the process of collecting and concentrating runoff water from a runoff area into a run-on area, where the collected water is either directly applied to the cropping area and stored in the soil profile for immediate use by the crop, i. e. runoff farming, or stored in an on-farm water reservoir for future productive uses, i. . domestic use, livestock watering, aquaculture irrigation. The collected water can also be used for groundwater recharge and storage into the aquifer, i. e. recharge enhancement. Source FAO, 2003. Rainfall failure occurs once every 3 to 5 years and is usually below 50% of the average annual rainfall of the region. During periods of rainfall failure, the groundwater level lowers since fluctuations in the water table levels depend on the rainfall when both surface and groundwater availability becomes critical. Drought begins to prevail and there is a difficulty to cope up with the water demand during this period. Similarly, in some locations or areas water shortage is observed just before the rainy season commences. These two situations can be managed if suitable soil and moisture conservation measures are systematically implemented on a small watershed basis. Watershed development and management implies an integration of technologies within the natural boundary of a drainage area for optimum development of land, water and plant resources, to meet the peoples basic needs in a sustained manner. A watershed is an area from which runoff resulting from precipitation flows past a single point into a large stream, river, lake or pond. Each watershed is an independent hydrological unit. It has become an acceptable unit of planning for optimum use and conservation of soil and water resources. The concept of integrated watershed development refers to the development and management of the resources in the watershed to achieve higher sustainable production without deterioration in the resource base and any ecological imbalances. This concept requires the formulation and implementation of a package of programs with activities for optimum resource use in the watershed without adversely affecting the soil and water base or life supporting system. The concept assumes more importance in the context of planning for sustained development. Watershed development aims at preventing watershed degradation resulting from the interaction of physiographic features. It eliminates unscientific land use, inappropriate cropping patterns and soil erosion, thereby improving and sustaining productivity of resources leading to higher income and living standards for the inhabitants in the watershed area. It, therefore, involves restoration of the ecosystem, protecting and utilizing the locally available resources within a watershed to achieve sustainable development. Water harvesting is a proven technology to increase food security in drought prone areas and helps to erosion control and recharge of ground water for future demand.

Green Research Within The Hospitality Industry Tourism Essays

Green Research Within The Hospitality Industry Tourism Essays Green Research Within The Hospitality Industry Tourism Essay Green Research Within The Hospitality Industry Tourism Essay Tourism is regarded as one of the fastest turning industry in the universe, transforming into a mean of development for several states, including many Small Island Developing states ( SIDS ) like Mauritius ( UNWTO, 2011 ) . Indeed has the Travel and Tourism industry brings many positive impacts in Mauritius but the fact that alongside with these advantages, other factors like clime alteration, Pollution and effects of touristry patterns have besides created a hot issue in the Tourism sphere today. The negative impacts of touristry activities has resulted in an increasing demand of green finish, intending finish where there are seeable attempts of protecting and prolonging the environment by covering with issues like C emanations, bio diverseness preservation, resources use, H2O supply and waste direction. It can be said that the touristry and the environment sustainability construct are visibly going natural spouses. The Hotel industry in peculiar has late received much attending, with consciousness of the negative impact that are holding on the environment ( Kasim, 2004 ) . Negative impacts include the extended sum of wash that hotels do on a day-to-day footing, the usage of disposable merchandises, heated swimming pools, and the usage of strong cleansing merchandises by housekeeping sections ( Gustin A ; Weaver, 1996 ) . Some negative impacts include the extended sum of wash that hotels do on a day-to-day footing, the usage of disposable merchandises, heated swimming pools, and the usage of strong cleansing merchandises by housekeeping sections ( Gustin A ; Weaver, 1996 ) . These impacts have urged many hotels to alter or modify their patterns so they are cognizant that this will non merely assist to prolong the environment but will besides be advantageous to the hotel besides in the long tally. By making and practising environment friendly patterns, hotels gain positive promotion, client tru eness, therefore a definite competitory border over rivals. ( Guskin A ; Weaver, 1996 ) : The addition concern of environment issues is surely holding an impact of hotel choice by visitants. A study by the U.K. s Devon County Council in 2009 shows that 54 % of respondents truly see environment issues before they book a trip to a peculiar finish. Further the study besides shows that 82 % of them were willing to paid more to remain in a green hotel which provides green services and cordial reception. Indeed therefore study gives an thought of tourer s attitude about green hotel and green patterns. In Mauritius many hotels like Beachcomber in Trou aux biches are traveling green. Although there have been research workers in green hotel in Mauritius, one major spread exists in respects to green hotel. researches have been largely carried out at organisational degree. However, there has non been any research yet so as to enable us to cognize what attitude the visitants are holding about these green hotels in our island. The chief intent of this survey is therefore to research the point of positions and attitude of foreign visitants towards the green hotels in Mauritius. The aims of the survey therefore encompass: To measure the visitant s attitude towards green hotels To measure of import factors taking into consideration by green visitants To place factors that visitants would hold like to see in Mauritius green hotels Literature Review Hotel Choice Nowadays clients no longer accept merely linen and towel reuse plans as being adequate green patterns in the green hotel construct. They expect more from green hotels and required their patterns to be even more socio-environmentally responsible. They consider factors that are taking to energy efficiency, a proper waste division, procurance, and H2O preservation ( Heisterkamp, 2009 ; Wolff, 2008 ) . Several researches have been conducted by utilizing several methods to analyze hotel choice and attributes that considered by travellers ( Dolnicar, 2002 ) . Past research has focused on the importance of properties in choosing a hotel ( Ananth, DeMicco, Moreo, A ; Howey, 1992 ; Callan A ; Bowman, 2000 ; Clow, Garretson, A ; Kurtz, 1994 ; Cobanoglu, Corbaci, Moreo, A ; Ekinci, 2003 ; Dolnicar, 2002 ; Griffen, Shea A ; Weaver, 1996 ; Lewis, 1984 ; Lewis, 1985 ; Lockyer, 2002 ; Lockyer, 2005 ; McCleary, Weaver A ; Hutchinson, 1993 ; Saleh A ; Ryan, 1992 ; Schaefer, Selum A ; Margavio , 1995 ; Tsaur A ; Tzend, 1995 ; Weaver A ; Oh, 1993 ) Green Research within the Hospitality Industry To understand who stays at green hotels every bit good as the beliefs consumers have about what a green hotel is and what they offer ; a definition of what a green hotel must foremost be discussed. Green hotels are environmentally friendly housing installations which employ direction that participate in and originate environmentally sustainable 10 plans. Plans such as watersaving techniques, energy decrease, and waste consolidation are often used within green hotels ( Green Hotel Association [ GHA ] , 2008 ) Reasons Hotels go Green Operating costs. A major ground as to why many hotels are traveling green is that environmental patterns can well cut down the operating costs of the hotel. It has been good documented in several surveies that economic benefits can be gained through implementing environmental enterprises ( Graci A ; Dodds, 2008 ) . For illustration, New Zealand s Hyatt Regency International Hotel installed an energy salvaging plan based on room tenancy. In many hotels, when a invitee leaves their room, all energy utilizing contraptions shut off, excepting necessary contraptions such as iceboxs and dismay redstem storksbills. This pattern entirely saves the hotel batch of money each twelvemonth ( Alexander, 2002 ) . Another benefit to cut downing operating costs is gaining a higher output per client. The Marriott located in College Park, Maryland is grounds of this as it uses 30 % less electricity than a comparable belongings ( DeLollis, 2007 ) . The College Park Marriott can therefore salvage 30 p er centum on its energy measures, every bit good as output a higher return per client than their rivals who charge similar rates and do non hold energy salvaging techniques in topographic point ( DeLollis, 2007 ) . Using statistics provided by the United States Green Building Council ( USGBC ) Butler ( 2008 ) was able to cipher how much hotels would hold to raise their mean day-to-day rate ( ADR ) to reflect a comparable underside line when compared to hotels energy nest eggs Harmonizing to Butler ( 2008 ) a limited service hotel that employed energy salvaging techniques that resulted in 30-50 per centum energy nest eggs. Competitive advantage It is going really hard to cover with ferocious competition presents. Green hotels create a competitory advantage for themselves by pulling and retaining their employees. Employee turnover is one of the biggest jobs and disbursals within the hotel industry. However, surveies have shown that environmentally witting hotels have greater employee trueness. A Canadian survey reported that employees are far more likely to place with an employer whose rules and patterns are in melody with current tendencies ( Graci A ; Dodds, 2008 ) . Environmental enterprises have shown to be a valuable manner to make passion and promote squad work to accomplish a cardinal end ( Graci A ; Dodds, 2008 ) . Team work must be inspired from the top down in a hotel. The Orchard Garden s general director, Stefan Muhle, said you merely ca nt direct out a memo, ( Dicum, 2007 ) All the staff have to be included forepart to endorse. Their bosom has to be in it ( Dicum, 2007 ) . Each staff member needs to be educ ated in what the hotel is making to accomplish sustainability ends so they can non merely take part, but besides answer guest inquiries ( Dicum, 2007 ) . By educating staff members, including them, maintaining them informed and disputing them to accomplish ends, direction of green hotels excites their staff and allows them to place with their organisation ; which leads to take down turnover rates. Lower turnover rates in bend save the hotel disbursals involved with recruiting, hiring, and developing new employees. The competitory advantages realized by green hotels do non halt with retaining employees ; consumers do seek out green hotels. Green hotels are going progressively popular due to the current environmental crisis that is happening worldwide. Green hotels are few and far between across non merely the United States, but besides the universe. Therefore, traveling green makes each belongings unique, and moreover creates a competitory advantage. Sustainable competitory advantag e exists with the ownership or a valuable resource that allows the organisations to execute better or more efficient than their rivals ( Graci A ; Dodds, 2008, p. 256 ) . The Cedar House Sport Hotel, for illustration, has gardens on the roof of their hotel. The gardens pull local birds and insects for invitees to detect, which in bend attracts more invitees. However, the gardens besides serve another intent, as they cool the hotel during the summer months ( Dicum, 2007 ) . In a survey of 445 travellers surveyed in three U.S. airdromes ( Atlanta, Dulles, and National ) , Gustin and Weaver ( 1996 ) found the bulk of their survey s respondents displayed positive attitudes towards hotels offering environmental schemes. Respondents were asked to bespeak how the offering of assorted environmental schemes would impact their determination to remain at a peculiar hotel offering the enterprises. Schemes examined included: recycling bins, shampoo dispensers, soap dispensers, efficient visible radiations, ice chest temperature in the corridors, warmer temperature in the corridors, visible radiations off, non altering sheets, non altering towels, no polystyrene froth, automatic spigots, low flow showerheads, recycled paper booklets, recycled paper for in room shows, and environmental schemes. Three variables, non altering towels daily, the installing of automatic spigots, and the installing of low flow showerheads, were the lone three environmental enterprises that did non derive a bulk feeling from respondents in respects to the likelihood they would remain in a hotel offering such environmental schemes. Seventy-one per centum of respondents besides stated that they would be highly likely or likely ( Gustin A ; Weaver,2008 ) to remain in a hotel supplying environmental enterprises ( Gustin A ; Weaver, 1996 ) . By take parting in green attempts, single hotels can make a positive company image that can besides ensue in a competitory advantage for non merely their hotel but besides the parent trade name ( Graci A ; Dodds, 2008 ) . For illustration, invitees who frequent Starwood s Element in America hotel may seek out other Starwood belongingss in other locations because they appreciate their environmental attempt put away with the Element. In Europe, there is strong g rounds that consumers consider the environment in taking a vacation location harmonizing to the consequences of the 2000 FEMATOUR ( Honey, 2002 ) . The FEMATOUR, or feasibleness and market survey for a European Eco-label for tourer adjustments, was used to find if a market existed for eco-labeled tourer adjustments and how executable the market was to entree ( Consultancy and Research for Environmental Management, 2000 ) . Consumer demand The demand for green hotels across the universe proves to be reasonably consistent as shown in a figure of surveies. The figure of people willing to seek out environmentally friendly hotels is comparatively low in comparing to the hotel industry as whole. However, environmentally witting consumers create an increasing demand for the green hotel niche. A survey conducted in India which surveyed Indian housing consumers about their attitudes towards green patterns in the housing industry showed that 22 per centum of the respondents seek out environmental belongingss ( Manaktola A ; Jauhari, 2007 ) . In the United States, 43,000,000 travellers are environmentally concerned ( Greening your travel experience, 1998 ) . Gustin and Weaver ( 1996 ) found that 73.7 per centum of respondents considered themselves environmentally witting consumers ; while 54.3 per centum idea of themselves as environmentally witting travellers. In a survey of Swedish and Polish hotelkeepers and the influence of geo-political, economic, and socio-cultural contexts of their states on environmental attitudes, in both Sweden and Poland, client demand ranked 2nd among seven classs as grounds hotels implement environmental patterns ( Bohdanowicz, 2006 ) . The hotel s principle for using environmental patterns were: cut downing operating costs, increased consumer demand for environmental patterns, decreasing environmental impacts of the hotel, bettering the image of the hotel, environmental patterns could be used as a selling plus, recommendations from direction and handiness of professional advice was increasing ( Bohdanowicz, 2006 ) .The consumer involvement in environmental enterprises creates a sensible mark market and a niche for hotels to carry through. For illustration, the Colony Hotel located in Maine found that their tenancy increased by one 4th when they began positioning themselves as a green hotel ( Shaw, 2000 ) . Barriers to Environmental Commitment in the Hotel Industry The words sustainability green and environmental have been attached to several touristry merchandises and finishs, particularly as portion of selling schemes and enfranchisement plans, nevertheless how sustainable or green or environmentally committed a touristry merchandise or finish is has non ever been clear. Sustainability is now seen as a cant, instead than an action program ( Henderson 2007 ) . In the last decennary, a figure of environmental enterprises have been implemented by enlightened touristry industry associations, hotel companies and single installations. A figure of environmental guidelines have been developed by assorted touristry organisations, such as the International Hotel and Restaurant Association, the American Hotel and Lodging Association and the International Hotel Environment Initiative ( IHEI ) ( Bohdanowicz, 2005 ) . Hotel companies are besides fixing their ain action programs and developing plans in environmental protection ( Bohdanowicz 2005 ) . T he Inter-Continental Hotels Group and Fairmont Hotels and Resorts have been noted as leaders in environmental committedness in the touristry industry. Yet despite the fact that most operators acknowledge the importance of the environment to their concern, environmental patterns are non widespread in this industry ( Anguera et al. 2000 ; Pryce 2001 ) . This can be aoˆ„?ributed to a figure of grounds. The construct of a green hotel is non easy grasped by many installation operators, as this industry bases its concern on sensed luxury, luxury and magnificence ( Iwanowski and Rushmore 1994 ) . There are besides hindering factors such as cost and the complex, varied construction of the industry that hinder the ability of single companies to do paces towards being environmentally commioˆ„?ed ( Graci 2008 ; Henderson 2007 ; Anguera et al. 2000 ; Pryce 2001 ) . Not to advert that the deficiency of information and the demand to portion best patterns have besides acted as an hindrance ( Graci 2008 ) . The deficiency of authorities ordinances on the touristry industry and the focal point on voluntary enterprises have resulted in low regulative force per unit areas ( Anguera et al. 2000 ; Pryce 2001 ) . In this industry, there is besides a important figure of little and medium- sized hotels that do non see the benefit, cost or otherwise of implementing environmental enterprises ( Pryce 2001 ) . Finally, client demand for green hotel installations has non been strong plenty ( Pryce 2001 ) . For these grounds, there is a spread between aoˆ„?itude and action in the hotel industry ( Iwanowski and Rushmore 1994 ; Anguera et al. 2000 ; Pryce 2001 ) . Research Methodology Customers perceptual experience on Green hotel has non truly beeen studien in the past until late ( Lee et al. 2010 ) . This chapter therefore lays accent on research instrument design, trying technique, pilot survey and aggregation. Sample size This survey focuses on researching tourer attitudes and behavior towards green hotels in Mauritius. Original paper study A paper study, that is a questionnaire, was set up and which were further divided into seven subdivisions. Section A

Employment training Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Employment training - Essay Example The main objective of the human resource requirement would be to coordinate their activities with others and also the accomplishment of the goals and objectives of the organization. The human resource professional spend a considerable time in improvement in area such as recruitments, selection, training and development. The main objective of the HR management would be the attainment of the specific goals and objectives. The major objective of the study would be to focus on several components of the employment training in strategic human resource management and its related activities. The author of the study would also be highlighting the various components of the formal and training imparted to the employees of the organization. Finally, the study will conclude with recommendations which can improve the various managerial situations by imparting knowledge through training and development programs. Training & Development Most of the employees look for learning and grab eventful opport unities as they seek for employment (Cabrera, 2009). To facilitate for employment opportunities and progression most of the companies spend a considerable amount of time and money on training and development programs. The main objective of the training and development program would be to improve the existing job and development processes. ... Effective training would helps in considering the work options which can improve the effectiveness in the work procedure. Training is also referred to skill development programs which help in the presentation of specific and commitments that develop the skills and behaviour that can be transferred to the workplace. It is also referred to the skill development options, which help in the presentation of specific actions and commitments and enhancement of the skills of the employees. Organizational development can be referred to building the capacity of the organization and sustain a few desired process that benefits the entire organization on the whole. This helps in the examination of the present environment and also identification of various strategies that will helps in the rectification of the errors and also improvement in the existing managerial process. Employment training helps the management to run the managerial functions in different manner and provides a structured format a nd how they can help in contribution to the organizational success. Traditional concepts of HR related to the training and developmental are not related to modern day techniques and concepts and are not always applicable to changing market dynamics. Training and development has not only enhanced the knowledge and skills of the employees but also has improved the thinking ability of the individual and lays emphasis on the reinvention and reengineering process of the organization. The contemporary HR techniques are highly sophisticated and allow the employees to imbibe the innovativeness which can bring about the dramatic changes in the marketing environment. It also helps in deciding upon the future of the organization by stemming

Haiti earthquake Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Haiti earthquake - Essay Example This causes earthquake. Three types of faults cause earthquakes: strike-strip, normal and reverse faults. They are measured using the seismometers. The most common scales are the magnitude moments and the richer sale. These two scales are similar numerically over their range in validity. The earthquakes with magnitude less than three are weak and causes less damage while those with magnitude of seven and above are strong. Depending on their depth, they potentially cause damage to large areas (Martin 188). The damage, which is caused by the earthquake, depends majorly on the topography of the region and the quality of the infrastructure. There is no limit for the possible magnitude of the quake. Since 1770, the strongest earthquake to occur was in Haiti. Haiti is in the island of Hispaniola. Haiti means the land of high mountains. Haiti has a total area of approximately 27,750 square kilometers. Its capital is port-au-prince. Haiti was the first nation in the Latin America to attain i ndependence. The independence was gained because of successful rebellion against rebellion. A severe earthquake struck the country in 12 December 2010 at 4:53 pm. The magnitude of the quake was 7.0 and its epicenter hit about 10 miles to the west of the Porte-au-prince, which is the capital city of Haiti. The inhabitants are poor and the earthquake affected its two million inhabitants, which is about 2% of the total population. This led to a humanitarian crisis that is still being responded to desperately by the world. The major concern is helping the people of Haiti who still have unanswered questions about the quake itself. Why it was not predicted, why it was that strong, and why it caused a lot of destruction. Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican Republic are on the Caribbean. Active tectonic plates border the Caribbean so that the whole region is prone to earthquake. The part of the plate that ruptured goes through Haiti and continues to the offshore and to Jamaica. T his was the fault of enriquillo plantain garden (Xingjian 92). It is one of the fault structures that have been separating Cuba in North America from Haiti in the Caribbean plate, for more that million years ago. The plate is relatively small and the larger plates surround it. One of the plates is the North America plate that is constantly exerting pressure. The opposing forces resulting to formation of volcano and earthquakes create great action of seismic waves. The Caribbean plate moves approximately 21 millimeters towards the east in relation to that of the North American plate. Enriquillio fault takes about seven millimeters of these. In 1751, the last major earthquake in the port-au-prince region occurred. This is important because in case that fault was locked or stuck for the past 260 years that could give the reason for the slip deficit in the segment of about two meters. If a plate is moving a distance not less than 21 mm, the plate does not move as a whole at one time, so me part remains in position. So if there had been no activity for the past 250 years, then there is a high amount of strain and approximately about one to two meters of this movement missing (Maurine 120). If the pressure builds over a long time, the greater magnitude of Earthquake happens. This explains why the Haiti quake was seven. The destruction was massive majorly because the earthquake was shallow and just below port au prince. It